Assessment Tool Comparison — Reading, Writing, Math

Reading — Domain Coverage Matrix

Which tools assess which reading domains. Primary vs. partial coverage, subtest names, and score types.

✓ Primary Core measure ~ Partial Addressed, not primary — Not assessed

Domain / Skill	CTOPP-2	TOWRE-2	WJ-V ACH	WIAT-IV	GORT-5	DIBELS 8th	AIMSweb+	WRMT-III	PAF/PAST	TWS-5	TOC
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSING
Phonological Awarenessblending, segmenting, deletion, manipulation	✓ PrimaryElision, Blending Words, Phoneme Isolation, Blending/Segmenting Nonwords Scaled / Index SS	—	~ PartialSound Awareness W-score / SS	~ PartialPhonological Processing SS	—	✓ PrimaryPSF, NWF Benchmark / %ile	~ PartialPA composite %ile / RIT	~ PartialPhonological Awareness subtest SS	✓ PrimaryAll levels — blending, segmenting, deletion, substitution Criterion % accuracy	—	—
Phonological Memorynonword repetition, digit span	✓ PrimaryMemory for Digits, Nonword Repetition Scaled / Index SS	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Rapid Automatized Namingletters, digits, objects, colors	✓ PrimaryRapid Digit/Letter/Color/Object Naming Scaled / Index SS	—	—	~ PartialNo direct RAN; related processing speed	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
DECODING / WORD RECOGNITION
Real Word Readingisolated word identification	—	✓ PrimarySight Word Efficiency (SWE) SS / %ile	✓ PrimaryLetter-Word Identification W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryWord Reading SS	~ PartialWords in passage context SS	✓ PrimaryWRF, NWF-CLS Benchmark	✓ PrimaryORF, WRF %ile / RIT	✓ PrimaryWord Identification SS	—	—	—
Phonics / Nonsense Word Decodingapplication of phonics rules	—	✓ PrimaryPhonemic Decoding Efficiency (PDE) SS / %ile	✓ PrimaryWord Attack W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryPseudoword Decoding SS	—	✓ PrimaryNWF Benchmark	✓ PrimaryNWF composite %ile / RIT	✓ PrimaryWord Attack SS	—	—	—
READING FLUENCY
Oral Reading Fluencyrate + accuracy, connected text	—	✓ PrimaryTotal Reading (word-level timed) SS / %ile	✓ PrimaryOral Reading, Reading Fluency cluster W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryOral Reading Fluency (OFluen) SS	✓ PrimaryRate, Accuracy, Fluency scores SS / %ile / GE	✓ PrimaryORF (WCPM), Maze Benchmark	✓ PrimaryORF passages (WCPM + accuracy) %ile / RIT	✓ PrimaryOral Reading Fluency SS	—	—	—
READING COMPREHENSION
Passage Comprehensionliteral + inferential	—	—	✓ PrimaryPassage Comp, Reading Recall, Understanding Directions W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryReading Comprehension SS	✓ PrimaryComprehension questions per passage SS / %ile	~ PartialMAZE Benchmark	✓ PrimaryReading Comprehension growth %ile / RIT	✓ PrimaryPassage Comprehension SS	—	—	—
VOCABULARY / LANGUAGE
Listening / Reading Vocabularyword knowledge, definitions	—	—	✓ PrimaryReading Vocabulary, Oral Vocabulary W-score / SS	~ PartialVocabulary demands embedded in RC	—	—	—	✓ PrimaryListening Comprehension, Word Comprehension SS	—	—	—
SPELLING
Spellingdictated words, phonetic + rule-based	—	—	✓ PrimarySpelling (dictation) W-score / SS	✓ PrimarySpelling SS	—	—	—	—	—	✓ PrimaryPredictable Words, Unpredictable Words SS / %ile	—
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSING
Orthographic Pattern Knowledgevisual word form, letter patterns	—	~ PartialSWE timed access reflects automaticity	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	~ PartialSpelling patterns reflect ortho knowledge	✓ PrimaryOrthographic Choice, Homophone Choice, Sight Spelling — directly normed ortho pattern assessment Scaled / Index SS

Reading — Tool Profiles

Full overview of each tool: subtests, composites, score types, age range, and clinical guidance.

CTOPP-2

Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, 2nd Ed.

Age 4–24

Phono AwarenessPhono MemoryRAN / RAS

Scores: Scaled (subtests, M=10) → Composite Index SS (M=100, SD=15)

Core subtests: Elision, Blending Words, Phoneme Isolation, Blending/Segmenting Nonwords, Memory for Digits, Nonword Repetition, Rapid Digit/Letter/Color/Object Naming

Composites: PA Index, PM Index, Rapid Symbolic Naming, Rapid Non-Symbolic Naming

Two forms: Battery A (ages 4–6), Battery B (ages 7–24)

CHC: Ga (Phonetic Coding), Gsm (Memory Span), Gs (RAN)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Pre & Post

Clinical note: Essential for dyslexia identification. All three deficit areas map to Texas Dyslexia Handbook criteria. Elision is the single most sensitive subtest for reading disability.

TOWRE-2

Test of Word Reading Efficiency, 2nd Ed.

Age 6–24

Real Word ReadingNW DecodingWord Fluency

Scores: SS + %ile; Forms A and B (parallel)

Subtests: Sight Word Efficiency (SWE), Phonemic Decoding Efficiency (PDE); Composite: TWRE

Admin time: ~5 minutes; both subtests timed at 45 seconds each

CHC: Grw (Decoding), Gs (Processing Speed — speed is integral)

🔍 Initial Eval📈 Progress Monitoring

Clinical note: PDE isolates phonics automaticity from sight-word memory. Use alternate forms for pre/post to avoid practice effects.

WJ-V ACH

Woodcock-Johnson V Tests of Achievement

Age 2–90+

DecodingFluencyComprehensionVocabularySpelling

Scores: W-scores, SS, GE/AE, Relative Proficiency Index (RPI)

Reading subtests: Letter-Word ID, Word Attack, Passage Comp, Oral Reading, Reading Recall, Reading Vocabulary, Sound Awareness, Reading Rate

Reading clusters: Basic Reading, Reading Fluency, Reading Comprehension, Broad Reading, Phonics Knowledge

CHC: Grw, Gc (Oral Vocab), Ga (Sound Awareness), Gs (fluency)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Most comprehensive academic battery. RPI provides instructional implications beyond SS. Co-normed with WJ-V COG for ability-achievement analysis.

WIAT-IV

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, 4th Ed.

Age 4–50

DecodingFluencyComprehensionPhonologicalSpelling

Scores: SS, %ile, stanines; co-normed with WISC-V

Reading subtests: Word Reading, Pseudoword Decoding, Oral Reading Fluency, Reading Comprehension, Phonological Processing

Composites: Basic Reading (WR + PD), Reading Comprehension, Total Reading

CHC: Grw, Ga (Phonological Processing subtest)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Best paired with WISC-V (co-normed). ORF includes prosody ratings. Note: The WIAT-4 Dyslexia Index is a separate, brief standalone instrument — see its own profile card. The full WIAT-IV does not produce a Dyslexia Index composite.

WIAT-4 Dyslexia Index

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test — Dyslexia Index (standalone)

Gr PK–12 / Age 4–50

Phonemic ProficiencyWord ReadingOrthographic FluencyPseudoword Decoding

Publisher: Pearson | Type: Standalone brief instrument (separate record form from full WIAT-IV)

Scores: SS (M=100, SD=15) for subtests and composite Dyslexia Index; scores transfer directly to full WIAT-IV if extended testing is needed

Two grade-band forms:

Grades PK–3: Phonemic Proficiency (PP) + Word Reading (WR)
PP: Elision, substitution, reversal of sounds — oral; audio-recorded items; speed + accuracy scored. WR Part 1: letter-sound knowledge; Part 2: regular + irregular word reading.

Grades 4–12+: Word Reading (WR) + Orthographic Fluency (OF) + Pseudoword Decoding (PD)
OF: timed irregular word reading (two trials) — measures orthographic lexicon / sight vocabulary. PD: pseudoword list, measures phonic decoding skill.

Admin time: ~16–18 min (PK–3) · ~5–6 min (Gr 4–12+)

CHC: Ga (Phonemic Proficiency → Phonetic Coding), Grw (Word Reading, PD), Gs (Orthographic Fluency — timed)

🔍 Initial Eval📊 Dyslexia Screening

Clinical note: This is the instrument to use when dyslexia screening or a focused dyslexia eligibility composite is the primary goal. The Dyslexia Index score differentiates students with and without dyslexia with clinical sensitivity. Because scores transfer to the full WIAT-IV, it can function as the starting point for a complete achievement evaluation. For Gr 4–12+, the Orthographic Fluency subtest is clinically significant — it captures the orthographic lexicon (sight vocabulary automaticity), not just phonics, making this composite more diagnostically complete than phonics-only screeners.

GORT-5

Gray Oral Reading Tests, 5th Ed.

Age 6–23

ORF — Rate + AccuracyPassage Comp

Scores: Scaled per passage → Fluency SS, Comprehension SS, Oral Reading Index (ORI)

Forms: A and B (parallel); graduated passage difficulty; GE norms

Comprehension: Literal + inferential probes after each passage

CHC: Grw (reading fluency), Gc (comprehension inferencing)

🔍 Initial Eval📈 Progress Monitoring

Clinical note: Best tool for separating fluency from comprehension in connected text. Alternate forms ideal for pre/post monitoring.

DIBELS 8th / AIMSweb+

CBM Universal Screening & Progress Monitoring

K–Gr 8

PADecodingORFMaze/Comp

DIBELS scores: Benchmark status (not SS-based); criterion-referenced to grade norms

AIMSweb+ scores: %ile ranks, RIT scores, growth projections; integrates with MAP Growth

Measures: FSF, PSF, NWF, WRF, ORF (WCPM), MAZE; DIBELS through Gr 8, AIMSweb+ includes math CBM

📊 Universal Screening📈 Progress Monitoring

Clinical note: Not for standalone eligibility determination. Multi-year benchmark history powerfully documents failure to respond to instruction for SLD documentation.

TWS-5

Test of Written Spelling, 5th Ed.

Age 6–18

SpellingOrthographic Patterns

Scores: SS, %ile; Predictable Words + Unpredictable Words subscales; Forms A and B

Error analysis: Distinguishes phonetically regular vs. irregular/HFW spelling errors

CHC: Grw (Spelling), orthographic coding

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Supplement WJ/WIAT when error pattern analysis is needed for dyslexia vs. dysgraphia profiling.

WRMT-III

Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests, 3rd Ed.

Age 4.5–79

Word ID / DecodingComprehensionVocabulary

Scores: SS, %ile, GE, AE, Relative Performance Index (RPI)

Subtests: Phonological Awareness, Letter ID, Word Identification, Word Attack, Word Comprehension (Antonyms/Synonyms/Analogies), Passage Comprehension, ORF

CHC: Grw, Gc (vocabulary/comprehension)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Best adult reading battery available. Excellent for post-secondary and adult literacy contexts. RPI is especially useful for re-eval continued services documentation.

Reading — By Age / Grade Band

★★★ = First choice · ★★ = Appropriate · ★ = Usable but secondary · — = Not normed / limited utility

Tool	PreK/K Age 4–5	Gr 1–2 Age 6–7	Gr 3–5 Age 8–10	Gr 6–8 Age 11–13	Gr 9–12 Age 14–18	Post-Sec 18+	Key Notes
Phonological / Phonics
CTOPP-2	★★★ (Battery A)	★★★ (Battery B)	★★★	★★	★	★ (to age 24)	Switch forms at age 7. RAN most sensitive in younger grades.
TOWRE-2	—	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 24)	Both forms essential for progress monitoring. Watch ceiling in strong older readers.
PAF / PAST	★★★	★★★	★★ (persisting deficits)	★	★	★	No norms; ideal for intervention planning at any age.
Broad Achievement
WJ-V ACH	★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	Most age-versatile. W-score growth ideal for re-evals.
WIAT-IV	★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 50)	Full achievement battery. Best with WISC-V. No standalone Dyslexia Index — see WIAT-4 DI row below.
WIAT-4 Dyslexia Index	★★★ (PK–3 form)	★★★ (PK–3 or 4+ form)	★★★ (Gr 4–12+ form)	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 50)	Standalone dyslexia screener. PK–3 form: PP + WR (~18 min). Gr 4–12+ form: WR + OF + PD (~5 min). Scores transfer to full WIAT-IV.
WRMT-III	★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★ (to age 79)	Best adult reading battery. Strong for post-secondary evals.
Fluency & CBM
GORT-5	—	★★	★★★	★★★	★★	— (norms end 23)	Best for fluency vs. comprehension dissociation in connected text.
DIBELS / AIMSweb+	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (to Gr 8)	—	—	Screening and progress monitoring only; not for eligibility SS.
Spelling
TWS-5	—	★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 18)	—	Alternate forms allow pre/post. Error analysis diagnostically rich.
Orthographic Processing
TOC	★★ (starts age 6)	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (ends age 17)	—	Only normed tool directly isolating orthographic processing. Critical for surface dyslexia profiling. Pairs with CTOPP-2 for complete processing picture.
Dyslexia Screening (Standalone)
WIAT-4 Dyslexia Index	★★★ (PK–3 form)	★★★ (PK–3 or 4+ form)	★★★ (Gr 4+ form, ~5 min)	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 50)	Brief standalone dyslexia screener. PK–3: PP + WR (~18 min). Gr 4+: WR + OF + PD (~5 min). Scores transfer to full WIAT-IV.

Reading — Initial Evaluation vs. Students with Intervention History

Tool selection guidance based on evaluation context.

🔍 Initial / Baseline Evaluation

CTOPP-2 — Always include for SLD reading referrals. Phonological processing deficits are foundational to dyslexia identification. RAN deficit is a double-deficit indicator.
WIAT-4 Dyslexia Index — Consider as a focused dyslexia screener when the referral question is specifically dyslexia risk and a brief composite score is needed. Gr 4–12+ form takes ~5 minutes and produces OF + WR + PD composite. Scores transfer to full WIAT-IV if extended testing follows.
WJ-V ACH or WIAT-IV — Full reading battery to establish decoding, fluency, and comprehension baseline.
TOWRE-2 — Quick, efficient screen for word-level reading efficiency. PDE isolates phonics automaticity.
DIBELS / AIMSweb data — Universal screening history provides longitudinal documentation of failure to make adequate progress.
GORT-5 — Add when oral reading fluency and connected-text comprehension need to be evaluated separately.
PAF / PAST — For granular phonological awareness profiling, especially K–2, to guide ARD program recommendations.

📈 Students with Prior Intervention

Ceiling/practice effects: CTOPP-2 PA subtests may not differentiate well for students with strong PA instruction. Compare against Memory and RAN, which are more resistant to direct instruction effects.
TOWRE-2 alternate form — Use the alternate form (A/B) from initial eval. Compare SWE vs. PDE gains — PDE gains typically precede SWE automaticity.
GORT-5 alternate form — Rate and accuracy may improve separately from comprehension; dissociation is clinically meaningful.
WJ-V ACH W-scores and RPI — Show growth even when SS doesn't shift substantially. Reading Fluency cluster is sensitive to intervention gains.
DIBELS / AIMSweb growth trajectory — Presents powerful evidence for or against adequate response to intervention.
PAF / PAST — Documents which PA levels have been achieved vs. remain fragile without norm contamination concerns.

⚠️ Score Interpretation Cautions for Students with Intervention History

Practice Effects

Re-evals within 12–18 months risk inflation, especially on CTOPP-2 and TOWRE. Use alternate forms (TOWRE-2, GORT-5, TWS-5) and supplement with PAF/PAST.

Compensated Profile

Students with early effective intervention may score average on achievement but still show processing deficits on CTOPP-2 RAN and Phonological Memory. Document the compensated profile — continued eligibility may rest on processing scores + historical data.

RPI vs. SS

Even when WJ-V SS rises to average range, an RPI of 55/90 or lower documents functional difficulty with grade-level demands — useful for continued services documentation.

Reading — CHC Framework

How each CHC broad/narrow ability maps to the reading tools above. Useful for cross-battery analysis and eligibility documentation.

Grw — Reading & Writing

Broad: Reading / Writing Achievement

Basic Reading: WJ-V (LW-ID + Word Attack), WIAT-IV (Word Reading + PD), WRMT-III, TOWRE-2, WIAT-4 DI (Word Reading, PD)
Orthographic Fluency: WIAT-4 DI (Orthographic Fluency — Gr 4–12+), TOWRE-2 SWE, TOC (Homophone Choice, Sight Spelling)
Fluency: WJ-V Fluency cluster, WIAT-IV OFluen, GORT-5, DIBELS/AIMSweb ORF
Comprehension: WJ-V Passage Comp, WIAT-IV RC, GORT-5, WRMT-III
Spelling: WJ-V Spelling, WIAT-IV Spelling, TWS-5

Ga — Auditory Processing

Narrow: Phonetic Coding (PC)

Primary: CTOPP-2 PA Index (Elision, Blending Words, Phoneme Isolation), WIAT-4 DI Phonemic Proficiency (PK–3 form)
Secondary: WJ-V Sound Awareness, WIAT-IV Phonological Processing, WRMT-III PA subtest, PAF/PAST
Orthographic narrow: TOC (Orthographic Choice, Homophone Choice) — isolates ortho pattern knowledge from phonological coding; WIAT-4 DI Orthographic Fluency (Gr 4–12+)

Gsm — Short-Term Memory

Narrow: Memory Span (MS)

Primary: CTOPP-2 Phonological Memory Index (Memory for Digits, Nonword Repetition)
Note: No standalone measure in WJ-V ACH or WIAT-IV — supplement with COG battery for full profile.

Gs — Processing Speed

Narrow: Rate of Test-Taking / Perceptual Speed

RAN: CTOPP-2 Rapid Symbolic & Non-Symbolic Naming Indexes
Timed reading: TOWRE-2 (all subtests 45 sec), WJ-V Reading Rate, GORT-5 Rate, WIAT-4 DI Orthographic Fluency (timed irregular word reading)
CBM: DIBELS/AIMSweb WCPM

Gc — Crystallized Intelligence

Narrow: Lexical Knowledge (VL) / Listening Ability (LS)

Vocabulary: WJ-V Reading Vocabulary, WRMT-III Word Comprehension
Listening: WRMT-III Listening Comprehension
Clinical note: Strong Gc + poor Grw (decoding) = hallmark dyslexia dissociation profile.

Double Deficit Profile

Not a CHC factor — clinical profiling construct

PA deficit only: CTOPP-2 PA Index low, WIAT-4 DI Phonemic Proficiency low (PK–3) — core phonological weakness
RAN deficit only: CTOPP-2 RAN Index low, WIAT-4 DI Orthographic Fluency low (Gr 4–12+) — automaticity / retrieval weakness
Double deficit: Both PA + RAN low — most severe, least responsive to instruction alone
Orthographic deficit: TOC Composite low with adequate CTOPP-2 PA → surface dyslexia profile; phonics intact but visual word form system impaired
Texas Dyslexia Handbook: Requires documented phonological processing deficits; RAN and/or orthographic deficit strengthens evidence even if PA borderline.

Writing — Domain Coverage Matrix

Which tools assess which written language domains. Primary vs. partial coverage, subtest names, and score types.

✓ Primary Core measure ~ Partial Addressed, not primary — Not assessed

Domain / Skill	WJ-V ACH	WIAT-IV	TOWL-4/5	TWS-5	TOC	PAL-II	CELF-5 Written
SPELLING
Spelling — Phonologically Regularphonetically predictable words	✓ PrimarySpelling (dictation — includes phonetically regular words) W-score / SS	✓ PrimarySpelling SS	✓ PrimaryContextual Conventions includes spelling SS	✓ PrimaryPredictable Words subscale SS / %ile	~ PartialOrthographic Choice, Homophone Choice tasks tap related knowledge	~ PartialSpelling of Words subtest SS	~ PartialWriting conventions embedded in expression tasks
Spelling — Irregular / Orthographichigh-frequency, rule exceptions	~ PartialSpelling subtest includes irregular words; no separate subscale	~ PartialSpelling subtest includes irregular words	~ PartialContextual Conventions	✓ PrimaryUnpredictable Words subscale — specifically targets irregular/HFW spelling SS / %ile	✓ PrimaryHomophone Choice, Orthographic Choice — directly assesses ortho pattern knowledge Scaled / Index SS	~ PartialSpelling of Words	—
HANDWRITING / WRITTEN PRODUCTION
Handwriting Legibility / Speedletter formation, automaticity, speed	—	~ PartialAlphabet Writing Fluency (speed only, not legibility) SS	—	—	—	✓ PrimaryAlphabet Task, Copy Task — speed + legibility; finger sequencing tasks SS / process scores	—
Written Symbol Automaticityautomaticity of letter writing; alphabet fluency	✓ PrimaryWriting Fluency — timed sentence writing; reflects production speed W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryAlphabet Writing Fluency (30 sec letter writing), Sentence Composition Fluency SS	—	—	✓ PrimaryLetter Writing Automaticity, Orthographic Coding — speed of letter production Scaled / Index SS	✓ PrimaryAlphabet Task — uppercase and lowercase timed letter writing SS / process scores	—
SENTENCE-LEVEL COMPOSITION
Sentence Combining / Formulationsyntax, grammatical correctness	~ PartialWriting Samples — not specifically sentence combining; holistic scoring	✓ PrimarySentence Composition (Sentence Combining + Sentence Building) SS	✓ PrimarySentence Combining, Logical Sentences SS	—	—	—	✓ PrimarySentence Assembly, Written Expression tasks SS
Punctuation & Capitalizationwritten conventions	~ PartialWriting Samples scores account for conventions	✓ PrimarySentence Composition (conventions scoring) SS	✓ PrimaryContextual Conventions — punctuation, capitalization, spelling in context SS	—	—	—	~ PartialConventions embedded in expression scoring
WRITTEN EXPRESSION / DISCOURSE
Extended Written Expressionparagraph / essay-level, holistic	✓ PrimaryWriting Samples (scored for quality/content), Story Writing Fluency W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryEssay Composition (word count, theme development, grammar/mechanics) SS	✓ PrimaryContextual Language (vocabulary, syntax in writing), Story Composition (TOWL-4) SS	—	—	~ PartialWriting process components, not holistic writing quality	✓ PrimaryWritten Expression subtest (paragraph writing with criteria) SS
Written Vocabulary / Word Choicevocabulary use in written output	✓ PrimaryWriting Samples scoring criteria include vocabulary sophistication	✓ PrimaryEssay Composition theme development includes vocabulary scoring	✓ PrimaryContextual Language — vocabulary specifically scored SS	—	—	—	~ PartialWord choice noted in expression scoring
WRITING FLUENCY
Written Sentence Fluencytimed sentence generation	✓ PrimaryWriting Fluency — timed simple sentences (7 min); Writing Speed W-score / SS	✓ PrimarySentence Composition includes timed elements; Alphabet Writing Fluency SS	—	—	~ PartialLetter Writing Automaticity is related but not sentence-level	~ PartialCopy Task speed component	—
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSING
Orthographic Pattern Knowledgevisual word form, letter pattern knowledge	—	—	—	~ PartialUnpredictable Words reflects orthographic knowledge	✓ PrimaryOrthographic Choice, Homophone Choice, Letter Choice, Punctuation & Capitalization Choice Scaled / Index SS	✓ PrimaryOrthographic Coding (letter form from memory), Finger sequencing SS / process scores	—

Writing — Tool Profiles

Full overview of each writing assessment tool.

WJ-V ACH

Woodcock-Johnson V — Written Language

Age 2–90+

SpellingWritten ExpressionWriting Fluency

Scores: W-scores, SS, GE/AE, RPI

Writing subtests: Spelling (dictation), Writing Fluency (timed sentences), Writing Samples (holistic quality), Editing, Spelling of Sounds, Sentence Reading Fluency, Word Reading Fluency, Writing Speed

Writing clusters: Basic Writing Skills (Spelling + Editing), Written Expression (Writing Fluency + Writing Samples), Brief Writing, Broad Written Language

CHC: Grw (Spelling Ability, Writing Ability), Gs (Writing Fluency)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Writing Samples is one of the most ecologically valid writing measures available — requires generating meaningful sentences scored for quality. Editing subtest isolates proofreading skill from generative writing, useful for distinguishing production vs. editing deficits in dyslexia profiles.

WIAT-IV

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test — Written Language

Age 4–50

SpellingSentence CompositionEssay CompositionWriting Fluency

Scores: SS, %ile, stanines; co-normed with WISC-V

Writing subtests: Spelling, Sentence Composition (Sentence Combining + Sentence Building), Essay Composition (word count + theme development + grammar/mechanics), Alphabet Writing Fluency

Writing composites: Written Expression (Essay + Sentence Comp + Alphabet), Dysgraphia Index (Spelling + Alphabet Writing Fluency + Sentence Comp + Sentence Fluency)

CHC: Grw (Spelling, Writing), Gs (Alphabet Writing Fluency)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Dysgraphia Index (new in WIAT-IV) is a significant clinical addition — provides a composite score specifically designed for dysgraphia eligibility documentation. Alphabet Writing Fluency is a direct automaticity measure. Best when paired with WISC-V for ability-achievement analysis of written language.

TOWL-4 / TOWL-5

Test of Written Language, 4th / 5th Ed.

Age 9–17

SpellingSentence CompositionWritten Expression

Publisher: PRO-ED | Scores: SS, %ile; Forms A and B (parallel)

Subtests: Vocabulary (word choice in sentences), Spelling, Punctuation, Logical Sentences (absurdity detection), Sentence Combining, Contextual Conventions (spelling/punct in context), Contextual Language (syntax/vocab in writing), Story Composition (holistic)

Composites: Contrived Writing (structured tasks), Spontaneous Writing (essay-based), Overall Written Language

CHC: Grw (Writing Ability, Spelling Ability), Gc (Vocabulary, Language Development)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Most comprehensive writing-specific battery. Contrived vs. Spontaneous distinction is clinically important — a student may score better on structured tasks than free writing, revealing different deficit profiles. Story Composition requires extended planning and generation. Best for ages 9–17 when in-depth written expression analysis is needed.

TWS-5

Test of Written Spelling, 5th Ed.

Age 6–18

Phonetically Regular SpellingIrregular / Orthographic Spelling

Scores: SS, %ile, stanines; Forms A and B

Subscales: Predictable Words (phonetically regular), Unpredictable Words (rule exceptions / HFW)

Error analysis: Pattern analysis distinguishes phonological vs. orthographic spelling breakdown

CHC: Grw (Spelling Ability), orthographic coding (Ga)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Essential supplement when WJ-V or WIAT-IV spelling is insufficient for profiling dyslexia vs. dysgraphia. When Predictable Words score > Unpredictable Words, the student's phonics knowledge is outpacing orthographic memory — typical of phonological dyslexia profile. Alternate forms allow pre/post comparison.

Clinical note: No other normed tool directly isolates orthographic processing the way TOC does. When a student's phonics is adequate but spelling/reading remain impaired, TOC identifies the orthographic deficit. Critical for differentiating surface dyslexia (ortho deficit) from phonological dyslexia. Pairs well with CTOPP-2 for complete processing profile.

PAL-II

Process Assessment of the Learner, 2nd Ed.

Gr K–6 / Gr 4–6

HandwritingOrthographic CodingWriting Automaticity

Publisher: Pearson | Two batteries: Reading/Writing K–3 and Comprehension/Writing 4–6

Scores: SS, process scores, qualitative observations

Writing subtests: Alphabet Task (uppercase + lowercase letter writing speed), Copy Task (legibility + speed), Spelling of Words, Notes Taking (Gr 4–6), Expository Note Taking (Gr 4–6)

Unique feature: Only normed battery directly measuring handwriting speed AND quality for eligibility documentation

CHC: Gs (letter writing speed), Gv (visual-motor integration component), Grw (Spelling)

🔍 Initial Eval

Clinical note: Best tool for dysgraphia eligibility when handwriting legibility and speed data are needed for the FIE. Alphabet Task is the most direct measure of letter automaticity. Limited age range (K–Gr 6); for older students, use WIAT-IV Alphabet Writing Fluency + BEERY VMI + informal handwriting samples.

CELF-5 Written Expression

Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, 5th Ed.

Age 5–21

Sentence AssemblyWritten Expression

Publisher: Pearson | Scores: SS, %ile, Growth Scale Values (GSV)

Relevant subtests: Sentence Assembly (written), Written Expression (paragraph-level; includes syntax, vocabulary, conventions)

Primary focus: Language formulation as it appears in writing — not handwriting or spelling per se

CHC: Gc (Language Development, Syntax), Grw (Writing Ability)

🔍 Initial Eval

Clinical note: Most useful when the question is whether writing deficits are rooted in oral language/syntax weaknesses rather than decoding or motor deficits. Comparing CELF-5 Formulated Sentences (oral) to Written Expression (written) reveals whether the language-to-text translation is the breakdown point.

Writing — By Age / Grade Band

★★★ = First choice · ★★ = Appropriate · ★ = Usable but secondary · — = Not normed / limited utility

Tool	K–Gr 1 Age 5–7	Gr 2–3 Age 7–9	Gr 4–6 Age 9–12	Gr 7–8 Age 12–14	Gr 9–12 Age 14–18	Post-Sec 18+	Key Notes
Broad Written Language Batteries
WJ-V ACH	★★ (limited writing subtests)	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	Most age-versatile. Writing Fluency timed task sensitive to automaticity deficits. RPI useful for instructional planning.
WIAT-IV	★★ (Alphabet WF + Spelling)	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 50)	Dysgraphia Index is a significant clinical advantage. Best with WISC-V.
TOWL-4/5	—	—	★★★ (starts age 9)	★★★	★★★	— (ends age 17)	Most comprehensive writing-specific battery. Contrived vs. Spontaneous dissociation clinically meaningful.
CELF-5 Written	★ (age 5, limited writing)	★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	— (ends age 21)	Best when language formulation is the suspected root cause. Oral-to-written comparison is clinically powerful.
Spelling-Specific
TWS-5	—	★★★ (starts age 6)	★★★	★★★	★★ (ends age 18)	—	Alternate forms for pre/post. Error pattern analysis richer than WJ/WIAT spelling alone.
Orthographic Processing
TOC	★★ (starts age 6)	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (ends age 17)	—	Only normed tool for direct orthographic pattern assessment. Essential for surface dyslexia profiling.
Handwriting / Automaticity
PAL-II	★★★ (K–Gr 3 battery)	★★★	★★★ (Gr 4–6 battery)	— (ends Gr 6)	—	—	Only normed handwriting legibility + speed tool. For Gr 7+, use WIAT-IV Alphabet WF + informal samples + BEERY VMI.

Writing — Initial Evaluation vs. Students with Intervention History

Tool selection guidance based on evaluation context and referral question.

🔍 Initial / Baseline Evaluation

WJ-V ACH or WIAT-IV — Always include a full written language battery. Note that WIAT-IV Dysgraphia Index is a significant advantage when dysgraphia is the referral question.
WIAT-IV Alphabet Writing Fluency — Critical for letter automaticity data at any age where PAL-II is unavailable or out of range.
TWS-5 — Add when error pattern analysis is needed beyond total spelling score. Predictable vs. Unpredictable subscales reveal the phonological vs. orthographic split.
TOC — Add when orthographic processing is the suspected deficit (student sounds words out well but can't retain visual word forms). Pairs directly with CTOPP-2 for a complete processing battery.
PAL-II (K–Gr 6) — Include when handwriting legibility, speed, and automaticity need normed documentation for dysgraphia eligibility.
TOWL-4/5 — Add for students age 9+ when in-depth written expression analysis is needed beyond what WJ-V/WIAT-IV writing subtests provide.
CELF-5 Written Expression — Consider when the question is whether language formulation (not mechanics) is driving writing deficits.

📈 Students with Prior Intervention

WJ-V W-scores and RPI — Writing Fluency and Writing Samples W-scores show growth even when SS remains below average. RPI documents ongoing functional difficulty for continued services.
WIAT-IV Dysgraphia Index re-eval — If the Dysgraphia Index was used at initial eval, re-administer at re-eval. Note that Alphabet Writing Fluency gains may outpace Essay Composition gains in students who received fluency-specific intervention.
TWS-5 alternate form — Track whether Predictable Words gains are closing the gap with Unpredictable Words — this reflects orthographic learning progress in intervention.
TOC re-eval — Orthographic processing is slow to remediate. TOC score pattern may still show deficit even when basic spelling improves, supporting continued eligibility.
TOWL-4/5 alternate form — Contrived vs. Spontaneous comparison may shift in intervention students who gain mechanical skills but struggle with extended composition demands.
Writing samples / portfolio data — Informal longitudinal writing samples from intervention are often the most ecologically valid evidence of growth (or lack thereof) in written expression.

🖊️ Dysgraphia Eligibility — Recommended Battery

No single tool establishes dysgraphia. The following combination addresses all three deficit domains (spelling, handwriting/automaticity, written expression):

Spelling: WIAT-IV Spelling + TWS-5 (error pattern) or WJ-V Spelling + Editing
Handwriting / Automaticity: WIAT-IV Alphabet Writing Fluency + PAL-II Alphabet Task (K–Gr 6) or informal timed handwriting samples (Gr 7+)
Written Expression: WIAT-IV Essay Composition or WJ-V Writing Samples + TOWL-4/5 (if age 9+)
Orthographic Processing: TOC (if ortho deficit is suspected alongside or instead of phonological deficit)
Supporting data: Teacher writing samples across time, RTI/intervention documentation, WISC-V Processing Speed Index

Writing — CHC Framework

How CHC broad and narrow abilities map to writing assessment tools. Useful for cross-battery analysis and SLD written expression eligibility documentation.

Grw — Reading & Writing

Narrow: Spelling Ability (SG), Writing Ability (WA)

Spelling: WJ-V Spelling, WIAT-IV Spelling, TWS-5 (both subscales)
Writing Ability: WJ-V Writing Samples, WIAT-IV Essay Composition, TOWL-4/5 Contextual Language & Story Composition, CELF-5 Written Expression

Gs — Processing Speed

Narrow: Rate of Test-Taking — writing automaticity tasks

Letter automaticity: WIAT-IV Alphabet Writing Fluency, PAL-II Alphabet Task, TOC Letter Writing Automaticity
Sentence-level: WJ-V Writing Fluency (timed sentence generation)
Note: Low Gs significantly impacts written production even when language and spelling knowledge are intact — common dysgraphia profile.

Ga — Auditory Processing

Narrow: Phonetic Coding (PC) — phonological-to-orthographic mapping in spelling

Phonological spelling: TWS-5 Predictable Words, WJ-V/WIAT-IV Spelling (phonetically regular words)
Orthographic narrow: TOC Homophone Choice, Orthographic Choice — isolates ortho coding from phonological encoding
Note: Spelling deficits from Ga weakness = phonological errors (phonetically plausible misspellings). Spelling deficits from ortho weakness = visual pattern errors (correct phonemes, wrong letters).

Gc — Crystallized Intelligence

Narrow: Language Development (LD), Lexical Knowledge (VL)

Written syntax/vocabulary: TOWL-4/5 Contextual Language, CELF-5 Written Expression, WIAT-IV Essay Composition (theme development)
Sentence formulation: TOWL-4/5 Sentence Combining + Logical Sentences, CELF-5 Sentence Assembly
Note: Students with DLD (developmental language disorder) often show deficits here even when basic mechanics (spelling, handwriting) are adequate.

Gv — Visual-Spatial Processing

Narrow: Visual Memory (MV) — letter form storage and retrieval

Orthographic memory: TOC (word-level visual patterns), PAL-II Orthographic Coding (letter form from memory)
Note: Gv is less central to written language than Grw/Ga/Gs, but visual memory for letter forms and word patterns underpins handwriting automaticity and orthographic spelling. Supplement with WISC-V VMI or BEERY VMI when visual-motor integration is in question.

Writing Deficit Profiles (Clinical)

Not CHC — clinical profiling framework

Dyslexia + writing: Ga deficit → phonological spelling errors + WJ/WIAT Basic Writing low; CTOPP-2 PA Index confirms
Dysgraphia — phonological: Ga low, Grw-SG low → spelling and writing expression both impaired; often co-occurs with SLD reading
Dysgraphia — orthographic: Ortho processing low (TOC), Gs low → legibility + automaticity deficit; phonics may be adequate
DLD-related writing: Gc deficit → sentence formulation and discourse impaired; CELF-5 oral vs. written comparison reveals language-as-cause

Math — Domain Coverage Matrix

Which tools assess which mathematics domains. Primary vs. partial coverage, subtest names, and score types.

✓ Primary Core measure ~ Partial Addressed, not primary — Not assessed

Domain / Skill	WJ-V ACH	WIAT-IV	KTEA-3	KeyMath-3	AIMSweb+ Math	STAR Math / iReady
EARLY NUMERACY
Counting / Number Sensenumber recognition, counting, subitizing, magnitude	✓ PrimaryNumber Matrices (number patterns), Applied Problems (earliest items) W-score / SS	~ PartialMath Problem Solving — early items cover counting and number concepts SS	✓ PrimaryNumber & Quantity — counting, number line, magnitude, subitizing SS	✓ PrimaryNumeration, Number Line Estimation, Place Value — comprehensive early numeracy Scaled / Composite SS	✓ PrimaryEarly Numeracy CBM: Number Identification, Quantity Discrimination, Missing Number Benchmark / %ile	~ PartialAdaptive items include early numeracy at appropriate level SS / Scaled score
Place Value / Number Conceptsbase-10 understanding, number relationships	✓ PrimaryNumber Matrices, Math Knowledge (COG battery — related) W-score / SS	~ PartialMath Problem Solving includes place value items	✓ PrimaryNumber & Quantity cluster SS	✓ PrimaryNumeration, Place Value subtests — dedicated coverage Scaled / Composite SS	~ PartialComputation probes include place value demands	~ PartialAdaptive coverage
MATH COMPUTATION / OPERATIONS
Written Computation+, −, ×, ÷, fractions, multi-step algorithms	✓ PrimaryCalculation — all operations including fractions, decimals, algebra W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryMath Computation (numerical computation without context) SS	✓ PrimaryMath Computation SS	✓ PrimaryAddition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division subtests — all operations scored separately Scaled / Composite SS	✓ PrimaryM-COMP (Math Computation CBM) Benchmark / %ile	✓ PrimaryComputation domain score (adaptive) SS / Scaled score
MATH CONCEPTS / KNOWLEDGE
Math Concepts & Applicationsunderstanding mathematical ideas, operations concepts	✓ PrimaryApplied Problems (word problems + concepts), Number Matrices (pattern reasoning) W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryMath Problem Solving (word problems, charts, graphs, measurement, geometry) SS	✓ PrimaryMath Concepts & Applications SS	✓ PrimaryData Analysis & Probability, Geometry, Measurement, Algebra (conceptual) — broadest concept coverage Scaled / Composite SS	✓ PrimaryM-CAP (Math Concepts & Applications CBM) Benchmark / %ile	✓ PrimaryConcepts & Applications domain (adaptive) SS / Scaled score
Geometry / Measurementshapes, spatial reasoning, measurement	~ PartialApplied Problems includes measurement and geometry items	~ PartialMath Problem Solving includes measurement + geometry items	~ PartialMath Problem Solving includes these	✓ PrimaryGeometry, Measurement — dedicated subtests with separate scores Scaled / Composite SS	~ PartialEmbedded in M-CAP probes	~ PartialAdaptive coverage
MATH REASONING / PROBLEM SOLVING
Word Problems / Applied Reasoningmulti-step, contextual, real-world math	✓ PrimaryApplied Problems — untimed word problems across strands W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryMath Problem Solving — includes charts, graphs, data interpretation SS	✓ PrimaryMath Concepts & Applications SS	✓ PrimaryApplied Problems, Data Analysis, Algebra (applied) Scaled / Composite SS	✓ PrimaryM-CAP (multi-step applied items) Benchmark / %ile	✓ PrimaryProblem solving domain adaptive items SS
MATH FACT FLUENCY
Math Fact Fluencytimed retrieval of basic facts	✓ PrimaryMath Facts Fluency — timed addition, subtraction, multiplication, division facts (3 min each) W-score / SS	~ PartialMath Fluency (Numerical Operations subset — timed); not a separate fluency composite SS	✓ PrimaryMath Fluency — timed basic fact composite SS	~ PartialNo dedicated fluency subtest; operations subtests are not timed separately	✓ PrimaryMath Facts Fluency CBM Benchmark / %ile	~ PartialSome fluency items embedded adaptively
ALGEBRA / ADVANCED MATH
Pre-Algebra / Algebraic Reasoningpatterns, equations, variables	✓ PrimaryCalculation (includes algebra operations), Number Matrices (pattern reasoning) W-score / SS	~ PartialMath Problem Solving includes algebraic reasoning items	~ PartialMath Computation includes algebra items at upper levels	✓ PrimaryAlgebra subtest — dedicated; pattern recognition, equations, functions Scaled / Composite SS	~ PartialEmbedded in upper-grade M-CAP probes	✓ PrimaryAlgebra domain in STAR Math adaptive engine; iReady includes algebra strand SS / Scaled score
APPLIED / FUNCTIONAL MATH
Functional / Real-World Mathmoney, time, measurement in context	✓ PrimaryApplied Problems — items include money, time, real-world contexts W-score / SS	✓ PrimaryMath Problem Solving — practical math applications SS	✓ PrimaryMath Concepts & Applications — real-world problem solving SS	✓ PrimaryApplied Problems subtest — money, time, measurement; most detailed functional coverage Scaled / Composite SS	~ PartialEmbedded in M-CAP items	~ PartialAdaptive applied items

Math — Tool Profiles

Full overview of each math assessment tool.

WJ-V ACH

Woodcock-Johnson V — Mathematics

Age 2–90+

ComputationConceptsProblem SolvingFact Fluency

Scores: W-scores, SS, GE/AE, RPI

Math subtests: Calculation (written computation), Applied Problems (word problems), Math Facts Fluency (timed addition/subtraction/multiplication), Number Matrices (quantitative reasoning), Number Sense (COG battery — Gq)

Math clusters: Math Facts Fluency, Brief Math, Broad Math, Math Calculation Skills, Math Problem Solving

CHC: Gq (Quantitative Knowledge), Grw (Calculation), Gs (Fluency), Gf (Number Matrices)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Calculation vs. Applied Problems dissociation is diagnostically powerful — low Calculation with intact Applied Problems suggests procedural math disability; the reverse suggests conceptual reasoning deficit. Math Facts Fluency timed task is the most direct normed measure of fact retrieval automaticity available in a broad battery.

WIAT-IV

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test — Mathematics

Age 4–50

ComputationProblem SolvingMath Fluency

Scores: SS, %ile, stanines; co-normed with WISC-V

Math subtests: Math Problem Solving (concepts, measurement, geometry, statistics, algebra), Numerical Operations (written computation), Math Fluency — Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication (each timed separately)

Math composites: Math Fluency (Addition + Subtraction + Multiplication), Total Math

CHC: Gq (Quantitative Knowledge), Gs (Math Fluency subtests)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Three separate timed fluency subtests (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication) is a clinical advantage — allows dissociation of which operations show automaticity deficits. Best paired with WISC-V Working Memory Index and Processing Speed Index to profile dyscalculia. No division fluency subtest.

KTEA-3

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, 3rd Ed.

Age 4–25

ComputationConceptsMath Fluency

Publisher: Pearson | Scores: SS, %ile, GE, AE; error analysis system

Math subtests: Math Computation, Math Concepts & Applications, Math Fluency (timed composite)

Math composites: Math Fluency, Math Combined

Unique feature: Skill Category Error Analysis — identifies specific skill gaps within each subtest (e.g., fraction computation, multi-digit subtraction with regrouping)

CHC: Gq (Quantitative Knowledge), Gs (Math Fluency)

🔍 Initial Eval↔ Re-Eval

Clinical note: Error analysis system is the most clinically detailed of the broad batteries — directly identifies which computational procedures are breaking down. Particularly useful when intervention planning needs to be highly specific. Strong alternative to WJ-V or WIAT-IV when paired with KABC-II.

KeyMath-3

KeyMath-3 Diagnostic Assessment

Age 4.5–21

Early NumeracyOperationsConceptsProblem SolvingAlgebraApplied

Publisher: Pearson | Scores: Scaled (subtests), Composite SS, %ile, AE, GE; Forms A and B

Subtests (13): Numeration, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement, Data Analysis & Probability, Mental Computation & Estimation, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division, Foundations of Problem Solving, Applied Problem Solving, Place Value

Composites: Basic Concepts, Operations, Applications, Total

CHC: Gq — broadest Gq coverage of any single battery; does NOT include a fact fluency timed task

🔍 Initial Eval

Clinical note: Most comprehensive math-specific battery available. Each operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) has its own subtest — you can pinpoint exactly where computation breaks down. Best choice when a deep diagnostic math profile is needed. Supplement with WJ-V Math Facts Fluency or WIAT-IV Math Fluency since KeyMath-3 has no timed component.

AIMSweb+ Math

AIMSweb Plus — Mathematics CBM

K–Gr 8

Early NumeracyComputationConcepts & AppsFact Fluency

Scores: %ile ranks, RIT, benchmark status, growth projections

Math measures: Early Numeracy (Number ID, Quantity Discrimination, Missing Number — K), M-COMP (Computation CBM), M-CAP (Concepts & Applications CBM), Math Facts Fluency

Note: Multiple equivalent forms for each measure — true progress monitoring across time

📊 Universal Screening📈 Progress Monitoring

Clinical note: Same caveats as reading CBM — not for standalone eligibility, but %ile data and growth trajectory are powerful supporting evidence for SLD math documentation. M-COMP and M-CAP can be administered separately to profile computation vs. application. Early Numeracy measures (K) are screening probes for number sense deficits.

STAR Math / iReady

Renaissance STAR Math / Curriculum Associates i-Ready

Gr 1–12

ComputationConceptsProblem SolvingAlgebra

Scores: SS (STAR: 0–1400), Grade Equivalent, %ile, Scaled Score; iReady: Placement level, domain scores

Format: Computer-adaptive; 20–30 items; covers operations, fractions, geometry, algebra, data/statistics across grade bands

iReady Math domains: Numbers & Operations, Algebra & Algebraic Thinking, Measurement & Data, Geometry

📊 Universal Screening📈 Progress Monitoring

Clinical note: Not psychometrically equivalent to normed diagnostic batteries — do not use for eligibility determination. SS and %ile data from STAR can be included as supporting evidence in an FIE alongside normed measures. iReady diagnostic reports identify specific skill gaps within strands, which is useful for intervention target setting. Both tools excel at documenting longitudinal growth or lack of growth over multiple years.

Math — By Age / Grade Band

★★★ = First choice · ★★ = Appropriate · ★ = Usable but secondary · — = Not normed / limited utility

Tool	PreK–K Age 4–5	Gr 1–2 Age 6–7	Gr 3–5 Age 8–10	Gr 6–8 Age 11–13	Gr 9–12 Age 14–18	Post-Sec 18+	Key Notes
Broad Math Batteries
WJ-V ACH	★★ (limited subtests)	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	Most age-versatile. Math Facts Fluency timed task is best in a broad battery. W-score growth useful for re-evals.
WIAT-IV	★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 50)	Three separate timed fluency subtests is a clinical advantage. Best with WISC-V.
KTEA-3	★★ (starts age 4)	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★★	★ (to age 25)	Error analysis system is the most diagnostic of the broad batteries. Use when specific procedural gaps need identification.
Math-Specific Diagnostic Battery
KeyMath-3	★★★ (starts age 4.5)	★★★	★★★	★★★	★★ (to age 21)	—	Most comprehensive math diagnostic available. No timed task — supplement with WJ-V or WIAT-IV Math Fluency. Alternate forms allow pre/post.
CBM / Screening
AIMSweb+ Math	★★★ (Early Numeracy K)	★★★	★★★	★★ (to Gr 8)	—	—	Supporting evidence only. %ile data and growth trajectories valuable for FIE. M-COMP vs. M-CAP dissociation useful.
STAR Math / iReady	—	★★ (Gr 1+)	★★★	★★★	★★★	—	Not for eligibility. Multi-year data and domain breakdowns are useful FIE supporting evidence. iReady strand detail good for intervention planning.

Math — Initial Evaluation vs. Students with Intervention History

Tool selection guidance based on evaluation context and referral question.

🔍 Initial / Baseline Evaluation

WJ-V ACH or WIAT-IV — Always include a full math battery. Prioritize WIAT-IV when WISC-V is the cognitive battery (co-normed) and three separate fluency subtests are needed. Prioritize WJ-V when co-norming with WJ-V COG or when RPI is needed for instructional planning.
KeyMath-3 — Add when a deep diagnostic math profile is needed. Especially useful when a student shows a mixed profile (e.g., computation impaired, problem-solving intact) and targeted subtest-level data is needed to identify exactly where computation breaks down.
KTEA-3 — Consider as an alternative broad battery when error analysis is prioritized over fluency data. The Skill Category system is particularly helpful for intervention planning.
AIMSweb+ / STAR / iReady data — Multi-year universal screening and progress monitoring data is important supporting evidence for SLD math eligibility, documenting failure to make adequate progress across time.
Pairing with COG: Always consider WISC-V Working Memory and Processing Speed when evaluating dyscalculia — fact retrieval deficits are often linked to WMI limitations; procedural deficits to PSI. WJ-V Number Sense (COG battery) provides direct Gq measure.

📈 Students with Prior Intervention

WJ-V W-scores and RPI — Math Calculation and Applied Problems W-scores track growth even when SS remains below average. RPI of 55/90 or lower documents functional difficulty for continued services justification.
WIAT-IV Math Fluency re-eval — Fact fluency is often the last skill to remediate. Students who received computation instruction may improve SS on Numerical Operations while Math Fluency remains impaired — track each separately.
KeyMath-3 alternate form — Alternate forms (A/B) allow direct pre/post comparison at the subtest level, showing which specific operations have been remediated vs. remain impaired.
AIMSweb+ / iReady trajectory data — Multi-year growth or flat-line data is essential for documenting response (or non-response) to math intervention. M-COMP vs. M-CAP growth patterns may diverge in students who received computation-focused intervention.
Error analysis (KTEA-3 or KeyMath-3) — At re-eval, error pattern analysis can demonstrate whether the type of errors has shifted (e.g., from procedural to careless) or whether fundamental gaps remain.

🔢 Dyscalculia / SLD Math — Recommended Battery & Profile

No single tool establishes dyscalculia. The following combination addresses the primary deficit domains and links to cognitive processing:

Computation: WJ-V Calculation + Math Facts Fluency, or WIAT-IV Numerical Operations + Math Fluency (Add/Sub/Mult)
Concepts & Reasoning: WJ-V Applied Problems or WIAT-IV Math Problem Solving; add KeyMath-3 for subtest-level detail
Fact Fluency (critical): WJ-V Math Facts Fluency or WIAT-IV Math Fluency — timed tasks essential for documenting automaticity deficit distinct from procedural accuracy
Early Numeracy (if K–Gr 2): AIMSweb+ Early Numeracy probes (Number ID, Quantity Discrimination, Missing Number)
Cognitive supports: WISC-V Working Memory Index (Digit Span, Picture Span) and Processing Speed Index link math fact deficits to processing constraints
Supporting data: AIMSweb+/iReady multi-year growth data, teacher samples showing calculation errors, classroom grades in math

⚠️ Math Deficit Profiles — Dissociation Patterns

Low Computation, Intact Reasoning

Suggests procedural math disability. Calculation algorithms and fact retrieval are impaired but conceptual understanding is adequate. Check WMI and PSI — often linked to working memory constraints. KeyMath-3 or KTEA-3 error analysis will clarify which operations.

Intact Computation, Low Reasoning

Suggests conceptual / language-based math difficulty. Student can apply procedures but struggles with word problems, data interpretation, and multi-step reasoning. Check Gc (language comprehension) — reading comprehension deficits can depress math reasoning scores independently.

Low Fact Fluency, Adequate Accuracy

Hallmark of fact retrieval deficit without broader computation impairment. Student can solve problems accurately but not automaticall. WIAT-IV three-operation fluency subtests or WJ-V Math Facts Fluency will reveal which operations are not automatized. Often co-occurs with phonological processing deficits in students with dyslexia.

Math — CHC Framework

How CHC broad and narrow abilities map to math assessment tools. Useful for cross-battery analysis and SLD math eligibility documentation.

Gq — Quantitative Knowledge

Broad: Math Achievement. Narrows: Math Knowledge (KM), Math Achievement (A3)

Computation / KM: WJ-V Calculation, WIAT-IV Numerical Operations, KTEA-3 Math Computation, KeyMath-3 Operations composites
Applied / A3: WJ-V Applied Problems, WIAT-IV Math Problem Solving, KTEA-3 Math Concepts & Applications, KeyMath-3 Applications composite
Note: Gq is the broadest indicator — low Gq does not by itself differentiate procedural, conceptual, or fluency subtypes.

Gsm — Short-Term / Working Memory

Narrow: Working Memory Capacity (MW) — most critical cognitive link to math disability

Direct math impact: Multi-step computation, carrying/borrowing, keeping track of partial products — all require working memory
Cognitive measures: WISC-V WMI (Digit Span, Picture Span), WJ-V Numbers Reversed, KABC-II Working Memory
Math measures that tax WM: WJ-V Applied Problems (multi-step), KeyMath-3 Foundation of Problem Solving, WIAT-IV Math Problem Solving
Note: Low WMI with low Math Facts Fluency = classic dyscalculia profile. Working memory limitations constrain fact automatization.

Gs — Processing Speed

Narrow: Rate of Test-Taking — math fact automaticity and fluency tasks

Timed math tasks: WJ-V Math Facts Fluency (3-min timed), WIAT-IV Math Fluency (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication — timed), AIMSweb+ Math Facts Fluency
Cognitive measures: WISC-V PSI (Coding, Symbol Search) — low PSI predicts slow math fact retrieval even with intact procedural knowledge
Note: Students with average Gq but low Gs often show adequate accuracy on untimed computation but score low on timed fluency tasks — this is a meaningful dissociation for eligibility documentation.

Gf — Fluid Reasoning

Narrow: Quantitative Reasoning (RQ) — math pattern recognition, algebraic reasoning

Math reasoning tasks: WJ-V Number Matrices (pattern-based quantitative reasoning), KeyMath-3 Algebra, WIAT-IV Math Problem Solving (multi-step)
Cognitive measures: WISC-V FRI (Matrix Reasoning, Figure Weights), WJ-V COG Number Series
Note: Gf is especially relevant for upper-grade math (algebra and above). A student with low Gf may struggle with abstract mathematical reasoning even when basic Gq facts and procedures are mastered.

Gc — Crystallized Intelligence

Narrow: Language Development (LD) — word problem comprehension

Math word problems: Reading-embedded math reasoning tasks — WJ-V Applied Problems, WIAT-IV MPS, KeyMath-3 Applied Problem Solving all require reading comprehension
Note: A student with SLD reading may score below average on Applied Problems / MPS not because of math reasoning deficit, but because of reading comprehension load. Compare performance on oral-presentation math vs. reading-required math to identify this pattern.

Math Disability Profiles (Clinical)

Not CHC — clinical profiling framework for SLD Math

Procedural dyscalculia: Gq-KM low, Gsm-MW low → errors in multi-step algorithms; facts may be slow; often co-occurs with ADHD or reading disability
Fact retrieval dyscalculia: Gs low, Gq-KM adequate → timed tasks low, accuracy adequate; concepts intact
Semantic/conceptual: Gq-A3 low, Gf low → word problems and applied math impaired; procedures may be adequate
Co-morbid reading: Gc low → reading-required math tasks depressed; oral-presentation math intact; CTOPP-2 deficit may be present